On this day in history, December 2:
Napoleon Bonaparte, the most captivating general and leader in French history who became famous for military victories that made him master of almost all of Europe, crowned himself emperor of the French in 1804.
Born to parents of Italian ancestry on the island of Corsica in 1769, Napoleon was educated in France, distinguishing himself in science and mathematics. He entered the École Militaire in 1784 and, a year later, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the artillery. He began an intensive study of military history and theory at that time.
Napoleon stood only about five feet, six inches tall, so early in his military career he was nicknamed "the little corporal." But he rose quickly through the ranks until he staged a coup d’etat in 1799 that made him first consul of France. Then, he led his armies to many stunning successes on the battlefields of Europe and, by 1807, France ruled an area that stretched from Portugal to Italy and north to the Elbe River.
However, Napoleon's attempts to conquer the remainder of Europe failed. A defeat in Moscow in 1812 nearly destroyed his empire, and he was deposed and exiled to the island of Elba in 1814. Ever since then, historians have been studying and debating his life, his accomplishments as well as failures. “History is a set of lies agreed upon,” he once said.
French Revolutionary Wars
The wars of the French Revolution provided Captain Bonaparte with the opportunity to distinguish himself. His skilled handling of the artillery at the siege of Toulon in 1793 forced the British invaders to forgo their aim of conquest, and he was rewarded with a promotion to brigadier general.
During the revolution, a member of the Directory ordered Napoleon to defend the Convention in Paris from a hostile crowd, and he dispersed the mob with what he called a “whiff of grapeshot.” “A revolution is an idea which has found its bayonets,” he said. He was given command of the Army of the Interior and, in 1798, was appointed to lead the Army of Italy. His victories against the Austrians in northern Italy induced them to conclude the Peace of Campo Formio in 1797.
Napoleon attempted to conquer Egypt in 1798–99, but was defeated by the British under Horatio Nelson at the battle of the Nile. Nevertheless, he reorganized the Egyptian government, introduced the first printing presses, created a health department and built hospitals for the poor, and founded the Institut d'Egypte. During the French occupation, the Rosetta Stone was also discovered, and the Nile River was explored as far south as Aswan.
The coup of Brumaire brought Napoleon to power in 1799, and he set up a military dictatorship, making himself first consul. He introduced many significant governmental reforms, including the Napoleonic Code, and redesigned the French educational system. He also negotiated the Concordat with the pope in 1801.
After vanquishing the Austrians at the battle of Marengo in 1800, he set out on what came to be called the Napoleonic Wars. The formation of coalitions of nations in Europe against him led Napoleon to declare France a hereditary empire and crown himself Emperor Napoleon I at Notre Dame de Paris. The claim that he seized the crown from the hands of the pope in order to negate his subservience to the pontiff’s authority is not true. The coronation ceremony had been agreed to in advance.
Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon won his greatest military victory against Austria and Russia at the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. He went on to defeat Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt the next year, and Russia at the battle of Friedland in 1807. He imposed on Russia the Treaty of Tilsit, thus ending the fourth coalition of countries against France.
Despite his loss to Britain at the battle of Trafalgar, he sought to weaken British commerce by establishing the Continental System, which blockaded their ports. He consolidated his European empire until 1810, but then became embroiled in the Peninsular War in 1808–14. He led the French army into Austria and won the battle of Wagram in 1809, and then signed the Treaty of Vienna.
To enforce the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon led an army of some 600,000 into Russia in 1812, winning the battle of Borodino. But he was forced to retreat from Moscow with huge losses. With his army weakened, he confronted a powerful coalition of allied powers, which beat him at the battle of Leipzig in 1813. After Paris was taken by the allied coalition, Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814 and exiled to the island of Elba.
Napoleon Finally Met His Waterloo
In 1815, Napoleon returned to Paris and seized power again to reestablish himself as emperor. But the success of the Hundred Days did not last. The French army's loss to the Duke of Wellington at the battle of Waterloo in 1815 defeated him once and for all.
Napoleon was exiled again, this time to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821 of an unidentified ailment, perhaps stomach cancer. Traces of arsenic were found in his remains later, leading some historians and scientists to suggest that he may have been fatally poisoned.
In 1840, his body was returned to Paris, and his tomb at Les Invalides remains a popular tourist attraction to this day. One of the most celebrated figures in world history, Napoleon revolutionized military organization and brought about liberal reforms that permanently influenced institutions in France and throughout Europe. “A leader,” he once said, “is a dealer in hope.”
John Kirshon - John Kirshon is a journalist/editor with more than 25 years of experience at the Associated Press, The New York Times and CBS News. He was ...
